Antibodies are immunological proteins that bind a specific antigen. In most mammals, including humans and mice, antibodies are constructed from paired heavy and light polypeptide chains. Each chain is made up of individual immunoglobulin (Ig) domains, and thus the generic term immunoglobulin is used for such proteins. Each chain is made up of two distinct regions, referred to as the variable and constant regions. The light and heavy chain variable regions show significant sequence diversity between antibodies, and are responsible for binding the target antigen. The constant regions show less sequence diversity, and are responsible for binding a number of natural proteins to elicit important biochemical events. In humans there are five different classes of antibodies including IgA (which includes subclasses IgA1 and IgA2), IgD, IgE, IgG (which includes subclasses IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4), and IgM. The distinguishing feature between these antibody classes is their constant regions, although subtler differences may exist in the V region. FIG. 1 shows an IgG1 antibody, used here as an example to describe the general structural features of immunoglobulins. IgG antibodies are tetrameric proteins composed of two heavy chains and two light chains. The IgG heavy chain is composed of four immunoglobulin domains linked from N- to C-terminus in the order VH-CH1-CH2-CH3, referring to the heavy chain variable domain, heavy chain constant domain 1, heavy chain constant domain 2, and heavy chain constant domain 3 respectively (also referred to as VH-Cγ1-Cγ2-Cγ3, referring to the heavy chain variable domain, constant gamma 1 domain, constant gamma 2 domain, and constant gamma 3 domain respectively). The IgG light chain is composed of two immunoglobulin domains linked from N- to C-terminus in the order VL-CL, referring to the light chain variable domain and the light chain constant domain respectively.
The variable region of an antibody contains the antigen binding determinants of the molecule, and thus determines the specificity of an antibody for its target antigen. The variable region is so named because it is the most distinct in sequence from other antibodies within the same class. The majority of sequence variability occurs in the complementarity determining regions (CDRs). There are 6 CDRs total, three each per heavy and light chain, designated VH CDR1, VH CDR2, VH CDR3, VL CDR1, VL CDR2, and VL CDR3. The variable region outside of the CDRs is referred to as the framework (FR) region. Although not as diverse as the CDRs, sequence variability does occur in the FR region between different antibodies. Overall, this characteristic architecture of antibodies provides a stable scaffold (the FR region) upon which substantial antigen binding diversity (the CDRs) can be explored by the immune system to obtain specificity for a broad array of antigens. A number of high-resolution structures are available for a variety of variable region fragments from different organisms, some unbound and some in complex with antigen. The sequence and structural features of antibody variable regions are well characterized (Morea et al., 1997, Biophys Chem 68:9-16; Morea et al., 2000, Methods 20:267-279, entirely incorporated by reference), and the conserved features of antibodies have enabled the development of a wealth of antibody engineering techniques (Maynard et al., 2000, Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2:339-376, entirely incorporated by reference). For example, it is possible to graft the CDRs from one antibody, for example a murine antibody, onto the framework region of another antibody, for example a human antibody. This process, referred to in the art as “humanization”, enables generation of less immunogenic antibody therapeutics from nonhuman antibodies. Fragments including the variable region can exist in the absence of other regions of the antibody, including for example the antigen binding fragment (Fab) including VH-Cγ1 and VH-CL, the variable fragment (Fv) including VH and VL, the single chain variable fragment (scFv) including VH and VL linked together in the same chain, as well as a variety of other variable region fragments (Little et al., 2000, Immunol Today 21:364-370, entirely incorporated by reference).
The Fc region of an antibody interacts with a number of Fc receptors and ligands, imparting an array of important functional capabilities referred to as effector functions. For IgG the Fc region, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, comprises Ig domains Cγ2 and Cγ3 and the N-terminal hinge leading into Cγ2. An important family of Fc receptors for the IgG class is the Fc gamma receptors (FcγRs). These receptors mediate communication between antibodies and the cellular arm of the immune system (Raghavan et al., 1996, Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 12:181-220; Ravetch et al., 2001, Annu Rev Immunol 19:275-290, both entirely incorporated by reference). In humans this protein family includes FcγRI (CD64), including isoforms FcγRIa, FcγRIb, and FcγRIc; FcγRII (CD32), including isoforms FcγRIIa (including allotypes H131 and R131), FcγRIIb (including FcγRIIb-1 and FcγRIIb-2), and FcγRIIc; and FcγRIII (CD16), including isoforms FcγRIIIa (including allotypes V158 and F158) and FcγRIIIb (including allotypes FcγRIIIb-NA1 and FcγRIIIb-NA2) (Jefferis et al., 2002, Immunol Lett 82:57-65, entirely incorporated by reference). These receptors typically have an extracellular domain that mediates binding to Fc, a membrane spanning region, and an intracellular domain that may mediate some signaling event within the cell. These receptors are expressed in a variety of immune cells including monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, eosinophils, mast cells, platelets, B cells, large granular lymphocytes, Langerhans' cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and γγ T cells. Formation of the Fc/FcγR complex recruits these effector cells to sites of bound antigen, typically resulting in signaling events within the cells and important subsequent immune responses such as release of inflammation mediators, B cell activation, endocytosis, phagocytosis, and cytotoxic attack. The ability to mediate cytotoxic and phagocytic effector functions is a potential mechanism by which antibodies destroy targeted cells. The cell-mediated reaction wherein nonspecific cytotoxic cells that express FcγRs recognize bound antibody on a target cell and subsequently cause lysis of the target cell is referred to as antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) (Raghavan et al., 1996, Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 12:181-220; Ghetie et al., 2000, Annu Rev Immunol 18:739-766; Ravetch et al., 2001, Annu Rev Immunol 19:275-290, all entirely incorporated by reference). The cell-mediated reaction wherein nonspecific cytotoxic cells that express FcγRs recognize bound antibody on a target cell and subsequently cause phagocytosis of the target cell is referred to as antibody dependent cell-mediated phagocytosis (ADCP). A number of structures have been solved of the extracellular domains of human FcγRs, including FcγRIIa (pdb accession code 1H9V, entirely incorporated by reference) (Sondermann et al., 2001, J Mol Biol 309:737-749, entirely incorporated by reference) (pdb accession code 1 FCG, entirely incorporated by reference) (Maxwell et al., 1999, Nat Struct Biol 6:437-442, entirely incorporated by reference), FcγRIIb (pdb accession code 2FCB, entirely incorporated by reference) (Sondermann et al., 1999, Embo J 18:1095-1103, entirely incorporated by reference); and FcγRIIIb (pdb accession code 1E4J, entirely incorporated by reference) (Sondermann et al., 2000, Nature 406:267-273, entirely incorporated by reference.). All FcγRs bind the same region on Fc, at the N-terminal end of the Cγ2 domain and the preceding hinge, shown in FIG. 1. This interaction is well characterized structurally (Sondermann et al., 2001, J Mol Biol 309:737-749, entirely incorporated by reference), and several structures of the human Fc bound to the extracellular domain of human FcγRIIIb have been solved (pdb accession code 1E4K, entirely incorporated by reference) (Sondermann et al., 2000, Nature 406:267-273, entirely incorporated by reference) (pdb accession codes 1IIS and 1 IIX, entirely incorporated by reference) (Radaev et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:16469-16477, entirely incorporated by reference), as well as has the structure of the human IgE Fc/FcεRα complex (pdb accession code 1F6A, entirely incorporated by reference) (Garman et al., 2000, Nature 406:259-266, entirely incorporated by reference). The effector function response may be modified by variant in the Fc region (Lazar et al. 2006 Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 103(111):4005-4010, entirely incorporated by reference).
The different IgG subclasses have different affinities for the FcγRs, with IgG1 and IgG3 typically binding substantially better to the receptors than IgG2 and IgG4 (Jefferis et al., 2002, Immunol Lett 82:57-65, entirely incorporated by reference). All FcγRs bind the same region on IgG Fc, yet with different affinities: the high affinity binder FcγRI has a Kd for IgG1 of 10−8 M−1, whereas the low affinity receptors FcγRII and FcγRIII generally bind at 10−6 and 10−5 respectively. The extracellular domains of FcγRIIb and FcγRIIIb are 96% identical; however FcγRIIIb does not have an intracellular signaling domain. Furthermore, whereas FcγRI, FcγRIIa/c, and FcγRIIIa are positive regulators of immune complex-triggered activation, characterized by having an intracellular domain that has an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM), FcγRIIb has an immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motif (ITIM) and is therefore inhibitory. Thus the former are referred to as activation receptors, and FcγRIIb is referred to as an inhibitory receptor. The receptors also differ in expression pattern and levels on different immune cells. Yet another level of complexity is the existence of a number of FcγR polymorphisms in the human proteome. A particularly relevant polymorphism with clinical significance is V158/F158 FcγRIIIa. Human IgG1 binds with greater affinity to the V158 allotype than to the F158 allotype. This difference in affinity, and presumably its effect on ADCC and/or ADCP, has been shown to be a significant determinant of the efficacy of the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab (Rituxan®, Biogenidec). Patients with the V158 allotype respond favorably to rituximab treatment; however, patients with the lower affinity F158 allotype respond poorly (Cartron et al., 2002, Blood 99:754-758, entirely incorporated by reference). Approximately 10-20% of humans are V158N158 homozygous, 45% are V158/F158 heterozygous, and 35-45% of humans are F158/F158 homozygous (Lehrnbecher et al., 1999, Blood 94:4220-4232; Cartron et al., 2002, Blood 99:754-758, all entirely incorporated by reference). Thus 80-90% of humans are poor responders, i.e., they have at least one allele of the F158 FcγRIIa.
An overlapping but separate site on Fc, shown in FIG. 1, serves as the interface for the complement protein C1q. In the same way that Fc/FcγR binding mediates ADCC, Fc/C1q binding mediates complement dependent cytotoxicity (CDC). C1q forms a complex with the serine proteases C1r and C1s to form the C1 complex. C1q is capable of binding six antibodies, although binding to two IgGs is sufficient to activate the complement cascade. Similar to Fc interaction with FcγRs, different IgG subclasses have different affinity for C1q, with IgG1 and IgG3 typically binding substantially better to the FcγRs than IgG2 and IgG4 (Jefferis et al., 2002, Immunol Lett 82:57-65, entirely incorporated by reference).
In IgG, a site on Fc between the Cg2 and Cg3 domains (FIG. 1) mediates interaction with the neonatal receptor FcRn, the binding of which recycles endocytosed antibody from the endosome back to the bloodstream (Raghavan et al., 1996, Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 12:181-220; Ghetie et al., 2000, Annu Rev Immunol 18:739-766, both entirely incorporated by reference). This process, coupled with preclusion of kidney filtration due to the large size of the full-length molecule, results in favorable antibody serum half-lives ranging from one to three weeks. Binding of Fc to FcRn also plays a key role in antibody transport. The binding site on Fc for FcRn is also the site at which the bacterial proteins A and G bind. The tight binding by these proteins is typically exploited as a means to purify antibodies by employing protein A or protein G affinity chromatography during protein purification. Thus the fidelity of this region on Fc is important for both the clinical properties of antibodies and their purification. Available structures of the rat Fc/FcRn complex (Burmeister et al., 1994, Nature, 372:379-383; Martin et al., 2001, Mol Cell 7:867-877, both entirely incorporated by reference), and of the complexes of Fc with proteins A and G (Deisenhofer, 1981, Biochemistry 20:2361-2370; Sauer-Eriksson et al., 1995, Structure 3:265-278; Tashiro et al., 1995, Curr Opin Struct Biol 5:471-481, all entirely incorporated by reference), provide insight into the interaction of Fc with these proteins. The FcRn receptor is also responsible for the transfer of IgG to the neo-natal gut and to the lumen of the intestinal epithelia in adults (Ghetie and Ward, Annu. Rev. Immunol., 2000, 18:739-766; Yoshida et al., Immunity, 2004, 20(6):769-783, both entirely incorporated by reference).
Studies of rat and human Fc domains have demonstrated the importance of some Fc residues to the binding of FcRn. The rat and human sequences have about 64% sequence identity in the Fc regions (residues 237-443 in the numbering of Kabat et al.). See FIGS. 3, 4, and 5 for the rat/human alignments of Fc, FcRn heavy chain, and FcRn light chain (beta-2-microglobulin). A model of the human Fc/FcRn complex has been built from the existing structure of the rat Fc/FcRn complex (Martin et al., 2001, Mol Cell 7:867-877, entirely incorporated by reference). The rat and human sequences share some residues that are critical for FcRn binding, such as H310 and H435 (Medesan et al., 1997 J. Immunol. 158(5):221-7; Shields et al., 2001, J. Biol. Chem. 276(9):6591-6604, both entirely incorporated by reference). In many positions, however, the human and rat proteins have different amino acids, giving the residues in the human sequence different environments, and possibly a different identities, than in the rat sequence. This variability limits the ability to transfer characteristics from one homolog to the other homolog.
In the murine Fc, random mutation and phage display selection at the sites, T252, T254, and T256 lead to a triple mutant, T252L/T254S/T256F, that has a 3.5-fold increase in FcRn affinity and a 1.5-fold increase in serum half-life (Ghetie et al., 1997, Nat. Biotech. 15(7): 637-640, entirely incorporated by reference). Disruption of the Fc/FcRn interaction by mutations at positions 253, 310 and 435 also lead to decreased in vivo half-life (Medesan et al J. Immunol. 1997 158(5):2211-7, entirely incorporated by reference).
The crystal structures of the rat Fc/FcRn complex identified important Fc residues for FcRn binding (Burmeister et al. Nature. 372:379-383 (1994); Martin et al. Molecular Cell. 7:867-877 (2001), both entirely incorporated by reference). The original Fc/FcRn complex structure was solved in 1994 to a resolution of 6 Å (Table 2a, Burmeister et al. Nature. 372:379-383 (1994), entirely incorporated by reference). The higher resolution structure, solved in 2001 by Marin et al, showed a more detailed view of the side chains positions (Martin et al. Molecular Cell. 7:867-877 (2001), entirely incorporated by reference). This crystal structure of rat Fc bound to rat FcRn was solved using an Fc dimer with one monomer containing the mutations T252G/1253G/T254G/H310E/H433E/H435E, which disrupt FcRn binding, and one monomer containing a wild-type Fc monomer.
Mutational studies in human Fcγ have been done on some of the residues that are important for binding to FcRn and have demonstrated an increased serum half-life. In human Fcγ1, Hinton et al. mutated three residues individually to the other 19 common amino acids. Hinton et al., found that some point mutants a double mutant increased the FcRn binding affinity (Hinton et al., 2004, J. Biol. Chem. 279(8): 6213-6216. Hinton et al. Journal of Immunology 2006, 176:346-356, both entirely incorporated by reference). Two mutations had increased half-lives in monkeys. Shields et al. mutated residues, almost exclusively to Ala, and studied their binding to FcRn and the FcγR's (Shields et al., 2001, J. Biol. Chem., 276(9):6591-6604, entirely incorporated by reference).
Dall' Acqua et al. used phage display to select for Fc mutations that bound FcRn with increased affinity (Dall' Acqua et al. 2002, J. Immunol. 169:5171-5180, entirely incorporated by reference). The DNA sequences selected for were primarily double and triple mutants. The reference expressed the proteins encoded by many of their selected sequences and found some that bound to FcRn more tightly than the wild-type Fc.
The administration of antibodies and Fc fusion proteins as therapeutics requires injections with a prescribed frequency relating to the clearance and half-life characteristics of the protein. Longer in vivo half-lives allow more seldom injections or lower dosing, which is clearly advantageous. Although the past mutations in the Fc domain have lead to some proteins with increased FcRn binding affinity and in vivo half-lives, these mutations have not identified the optimal mutations and enhanced in vivo half-life.
One feature of the Fc region is the conserved N-linked glycosylation that occurs at N297, shown in FIG. 1. This carbohydrate, or oligosaccharide as it is sometimes referred, plays a critical structural and functional role for the antibody, and is one of the principle reasons that antibodies must be produced using mammalian expression systems. Umaña et al., 1999, Nat Biotechnol 17:176-180; Davies et al., 2001, Biotechnol Bioeng 74:288-294; Mimura et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:45539-45547.; Radaev et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:16478-16483; Shields et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:6591-6604; Shields et al., 2002, J Biol Chem 277:26733-26740; Simmons et al., 2002, J Immunol Methods 263:133-147; Radaev et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:16469-16477; and Krapp et al., 2003, J Mol Biol 325:979-989, all entirely incorporated by reference).
Antibodies have been developed for therapeutic use. Representative publications related to such therapies include Chamow et al., 1996, Trends Biotechnol 14:52-60; Ashkenazi et al., 1997, Curr Opin Immunol 9:195-200, Cragg et al., 1999, Curr Opin Immunol 11:541-547; Glennie et al., 2000, Immunol Today 21:403-410, McLaughlin et al., 1998, J Clin Oncol 16:2825-2833, and Cobleigh et al., 1999, J Clin Oncol 17:2639-2648, all entirely incorporated by reference. Currently for anticancer therapy, any small improvement in mortality rate defines success. Certain IgG variants disclosed herein enhance the capacity of antibodies to limit further growth or destroy at least partially, targeted cancer cells.
Anti-tumor potency of antibodies is via enhancement of their ability to mediate cytotoxic effector functions such as ADCC, ADCP, and CDC. Examples include Clynes et al., 1998, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:652-656; Clynes et al., 2000, Nat Med 6:443-446 and Cartron et al., 2002, Blood 99:754-758, both entirely incorporated by reference.
Human IgG1 is the most commonly used antibody for therapeutic purposes, and the majority of engineering studies have been constructed in this context. The different isotypes of the IgG class however, including IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4, have unique physical, biological, and clinical properties. There is a need in the art to design improved IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 variants. There is a further need to design such variants to improve binding to FcRn and/or increase in vivo half-life as compared to native IgG polypeptides. Additionally, there is a need to combine variants with improved pharmacokinetic properties with variants comprising modifications to improve efficacy through altered FcgammaR binding. The present application meets these and other needs.